- UMANESIMO, RINASCIMENTO E RIFORMA: LA CENTRALITA’ DELL’UOMO
Il periodo che segna il passaggio dal Medioevo all’Età Moderna, tra la fine del Trecento e gli inizi del Seicento, è un’epoca di transizione caratterizzata da complessi mutamenti, che poco alla volta trasformano il clima culturale, sociale, economico, politico e religioso della civiltà occidentale, determinando una nuova forma di pensiero e di costume. Al centro di questo rinnovamento culturale c’è l’esaltazione dell’uomo, considerato artefice del suo destino e sovrano assoluto del mondo. Questa presa di coscienza della dignità umana è favorita dalla rinascita degli studi classici, le humanae litterae greche e latine considerate esempio e modello della più alta umanità. Si tratta di un’età di rinnovo e individualistica, nella quale, se è vero che forse mancano grandi pensatori, tuttavia la cultura si diffonde e sostiene un atteggiamento razionalmente critico anche nei confronti di chi aveva saldamente legato a sé le anime, le opere e la vita degli uomini nei secoli precedenti, ossia la Chiesa; il passaggio dal pensiero medievale a quello rinascimentale avviene sotto il segno della frattura, non della continuità: alla concezione teocentrica del Medioevo che considera la vita umana come un momento di pellegrinaggio su questo mondo in vista della felicità o della condanna eterne, si sostituisce una nuova visione antropocentrica caratterizzata da un forte legame alla terra, una metafisica dell’immanenza che pone l’uomo in rapporto orizzontale con la natura…e non verticale con Dio. Si delinea così una posizione di estrema fiducia nei confronti della natura umana e la virtù non è più qualcosa di ascetico, un uscire fuori da sé per raggiungere Dio, ma è gloria, soddisfazione, riuscita e successo; la vita è ora concepita come arte, come creazione individuale e libera, non più come subordinazione ad una legge superiore o ad una autorità religiosa. La costruzione di questo nuovo sistema culturale prende il via nel Quattrocento in Italia col nome di Umanesimo, consistente in una presa di coscienza, letteraria e filosofica, della dignità dell’uomo e in un’esaltazione dell’individuo; da ciò si sviluppano nel Cinquecento: nei paesi latini, il Rinascimento, ottimistica celebrazione dell’uomo come armonia, bellezza, intelligenza e potenza; nei paesi nordici, la Riforma protestante, fervida contrapposizione alla rigidità della Chiesa cattolica romana e alla sua lontananza sempre più evidente dalla verità evangelica a causa di un maggiore attaccamento alla dimensione materiale della vita.
5.1 Umanesimo e Rinascimento
Nella società della fine del XIV secolo, si respira ancora un clima di distanza tra l’alta e la piccola borghesia, situazione questa che verrà ulteriormente accentuata in età rinascimentale; le “scuole di abaco” sorte nel 1300, che insegnavano lettura, scrittura, matematica e altre nozioni utili agli scrivani-contabili e agli addetti al commercio, avevano già sostituito la numerazione indo-araba a quella romana, e l’attività commerciale aveva favorito lo sviluppo di una grafia più fluente e facile – quella che sta alla base del nostro sistema di scrittura; inoltre, le scoperte geografiche che dal XV secolo diventano di rilevante importanza, permettono il perfezionamento delle carte terrestri e marittime, necessarie per la grande espansione dei traffici mercantili: un importante cambiamento di prospettive al vecchio mondo europeo viene dato dalla scoperta del continente americano, dopo che nel 1492 Cristoforo Colombo approda con le sue caravelle nelle Antille; il commercio che fino ad ora si era mosso verso le regioni nordafricane e nei territori medioasiatici, perlopiù a seguito di imprese militari come le Crociate, trova ora uno sbocco inaspettato verso il Nuovo Mondo da cui iniziano a tornare galeoni carichi di oro e pietre preziose e qualche altra stranezza, portandosi dietro l’illusione dell’Eldorado (il nome con cui a partire dal 1537 i conquistadores spagnoli usavano chiamare il territorio dove il capo tribù veniva cosparso di polvere d’oro nelle cerimonie). Il popolo degli indios affascina e muove gli interessi economici e finanziari degli aristocratici che vedono nelle Americhe il luogo in cui cercare o fondare una civiltà nuova.
A partire dal Quattrocento, sorgono le nuove Accademie di latinisti, grecisti e filosofi con il proposito di recuperare gli scritti e lo spirito degli antichi attraverso la conoscenza delle humanae litterae. I vecchi sistemi didattici risultano ormai fuori luogo, pur rimanendo vive le vecchie scuole ecclesiastiche accanto a quelle laiche di nuova costituzione; sorge dunque l’esigenza di ricercare nuovi strumenti per creare modelli educativi e formativi adeguati alle esigenze culturali dell’epoca, visto che lo stesso programma didattico offerto dalle scuole e dalle università di nascita medievale non riesce più a soddisfare le esigenze e i bisogni di sviluppo della cultura umanistica e rinascimentale. La borghesia va sempre più differenziandosi al suo interno, come già accennato, fino all’emergere di una vera e propria classe privilegiata per censo e potere, i signori e i principi che iniziano ad assumere anche il ruolo di mecenati degli umanisti stessi – approfondendo così il distacco tra le arti maggiori e quelle minori, ossia: diventando la classe dominante a scapito della media e piccola borghesia che viene relegata al livello della massa e del popolo, e costruendo un sistema di riferimento valoriale che funge da modello per l’avvento del signore rinascimentale (basato su una serie di criteri volti alla moderazione del comportamento).
Non è difficile comprendere come l’uomo perfetto idealizzato dai pensatori rinascimentali sia il signore del ‘400 e il principe del ‘500 e ciò comporta lo sviluppo di una particolare pratica pedagogica che prende il nome di educazione signorile; le scuole liberali sono ora quelle che insegnano la virtù e la saggezza, che favoriscono ed esercitano le più elevate doti del corpo e dello spirito e quindi rendono nobile l’uomo. È considerato volgare chi ha come scopo della vita il guadagno e il piacere, ed altrettanto volgare e poco educabile è l’artigiano che non accumula ricchezza, perché la dote pratica del signore, del nobile, è la capacità di saper governare e amministrare e quindi ottenere gloria. In questi secoli in cui l’uomo è considerato il vertice della piramide dalla natura (vertice col quale la natura tocca il cielo di Dio) e il centro dell’universo (in una posizione in cui ha solo da invidiare Dio), il curriculum scolastico comprende: il latino, non più quello semibarbarico dei monasteri, ma lo stile ciceroniano (da usarsi anche nei rapporti familiari, perché impone un linguaggio non volgare nello stile e nei contenuti); la musica, che nelle signorie trova ampio spazio nella sua dimensione profana, distaccandosi perciò dall’essere esclusivamente a servizio della liturgia; l’arte, che permette di sviluppare il gusto estetico spirituale; la ginnastica (soprattutto equitazione, tiro con l’arco e giochi di lancio della palla), che serve da svago, distensione e ricreazione e che può fornire le basi per un eventuale addestramento militare, sempre lodevole e celebrato.
Nell’educazione artigianale, con il Quattrocento si fa sempre più frequente il lavoro commissionato dai maestri ad altri artigiani, anche esterni alla loro cerchia; la qualifica di maestro d’arte resta comunque necessaria per esercitare in proprio e avere allievi, ed è conseguibile solo dopo un lungo tirocinio nelle botteghe: tale percorso di formazione, però, ora include anche la parte intellettuale – non più solo quella pratica e addestrativa. Molti giovani borghesi, inoltre, desiderano provare le belle arti senza dover necessariamente seguire l’apprendistato e ciò è possibile nelle Accademie che però diventano sempre più esclusive e meno libere, delineando una netta contrapposizione tra gli artigiani veri e propri (destinati all’arte umile e culturalmente non apprezzata) e gli artisti e letterati accademici parificati agli universitari e dediti alle belle arti e al pensiero.
Tra le figure di spicco di questo periodo, un posto di rilievo va dato:
- – alla famiglia de’ Medici di Firenze, per il suo potere politico ed economico e per imponente impegno artistico dei suoi membri, sia come mecenati che come artisti a tutti gli effetti (si pensi soprattutto a Lorenzo il Magnifico);
- – a Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472), pittore e architetto, ma anche autore di pregevoli commedie e scritti di vario genere, tra cui il pedagogico Della famiglia;
- – a Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), eccelso artista e uomo di cultura secondo cui l’anima vale in quanto illumina, guida e aiuta a dare espressione alle capacità pratiche di ognuno ed è quindi funzionale al corpo;
- – a Niccolò Copernico (1473-1543), astronomo e primo teorizzatore dell’eliocentrismo, per il quale la natura agisce seguendo semplici e costanti principi, e perciò spostare il centro dell’universo dalla terra al sole vuole dire semplificare il sistema delle relazioni tra gli astri [NB: la teoria eliocentrica verrà poi portata a completa sistemazione nel secolo successivo grazie agli studi matematici di Johannes Keplero (1571-1630), agli esperimenti sulla caduta dei corpi di Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) e all’elaborazione definitiva della legge di gravità da parte di Isaac Newton (1642-1727)].
Da un punto di vista filosofico, ricordiamo:
- – Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494), filosofo e teologo dotato di grande memoria e intelligenza, elabora il concetto di deificazione dell’uomo (l’uomo è chiamato a partecipare della natura di Dio) quale scopo finale della creazione;
- – Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527), autore de Il Principe nel quale presenta la sua concezione di realismo politico, secondo cui: bisogna stare alla verità effettiva della cosa e non perdersi a ricercare come essa dovrebbe essere; il politico non può fare affidamento sul positivo dell’uomo, ma dovrà prendere atto del negativo e agire di conseguenza (con ogni mezzo); virtù è volontà che regola il caos, è abilità che si contrappone alla fortuna;
- – Erasmo da Rotterdam (1446-1536), che ne L’elogio della follia parla di una sorta di fuoco sacro interiore che porta a ricercare liberamente la verità e quindi a denunciare tutte le ipocrisie del mondo culturale dell’epoca, laico e ecclesiastico;
- – Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) che ribadisce la concezione della cultura come patrimonio di una elite intellettuale, contraddistinta soprattutto per la familiarità con gli autori latini.
Questi sono solo alcuni nomi dei tanti che hanno costellato Umanesimo e Rinascimento; il tema della dignità dell’uomo è stato affrontato da molti altri personaggi di spicco nella vita culturale, politica e sociale del tempo. Per dovere di cronaca, se ne elencano alcuni: Coluccio Salutati, Leonardo Bruni, Niccolò Cusano, frate Girolamo Savonarola, San Bernardino da Siena, Lorenzo Valla, Marsilio Ficino, Bernardino Telesio, Giordano Bruno, Tommaso Campanella.
5.2 Riforma protestante e Controriforma cattolica
Il 31 ottobre 1517 è il giorno che segna per sempre le sorti della Chiesa: Martin Lutero (1483-1546) affigge il testo delle 95 tesi alla porta della chiesa del castello di Wittenberg. I precedenti che hanno portato alla frattura del Protestantesimo sono riconducibili al problema delle indulgenze (l’abbreviamento delle pene che post-mortem si sarebbero dovute scontare in Purgatorio) che i fedeli cercavano per sé e per i loro cari defunti e che venivano collegate ad un’offerta in denaro che gli Ecclesiastici spesso utilizzavano per scopi tutt’altro che pii, giocando con la fede dei devoti cristiani. Inoltre, i Papi dell’età rinascimentale si preoccupavano più di consolidare la loro autorità temporale e di favorire le carriere dei loro familiari piuttosto che garantire l’incorruttibilità della Chiesa: anzi, con Alessandro VI (in carica dal 1492 al 1503) e con Giulio II (dal 1503 al 1513) la sede romana della Chiesa diventa il centro dello scandalo per via dei costumi corrotti, del nepotismo sfrenato e di una condotta politica decisamente amorale; le cose non migliorano coi loro successori provenienti dalla famiglia de’ Medici, Leone X e Clemente VII (che governano la Chiesa dal 1513 al 1534, a parte la breve parentesi del 1522-23 di Adriano VI). Tutta l’alta gerarchia ecclesiastica in realtà è carente di fervore spirituale e tesa ad accrescere il suo peso politico ed economico, a discapito della fede – in particolare quella del popolo semplice, che, fidandosi del clero di cui poco conosceva la corruzione e di cui troppo conosceva le sanzioni, donava senza scrupolo i pochi averi in suo possesso nella speranza della salvezza eterna. Ma il fermento e la voglia di cambiare che animano la cultura del periodo umanistico-rinascimentale arrivano a bussare anche alla porta del papato, e Lutero è di fatto l’uomo che incarna – per la sua formazione religiosa, il suo essere monaco, il suo desiderio di austerità e limpidezza – l’ansia della rinascita religiosa, la necessità finora latente del ritorno radicale al Vangelo, la sempre maggiore distanza dalle istanze tomiste che ritenevano l’intelletto umano capace di cercare e trovare da solo la verità (e qui Lutero si distanzia dalla tendenza antropocentrica dell’Umanesimo e del Rinascimento, affermando che il valore dell’uomo non risiede nella dignità umana, ma nella grazia di Dio).
Capisaldi della teologia luterana sono:
- la giustificazione dell’uomo mediante la sola fede. Lutero si sente incapace di meritare la salvezza eterna con le opere: solo la fede può salvarlo, perché l’uomo è creatura fatta dal niente e quindi niente può costruire a sua salvezza; la fede invece non può che agire bene e vale senza le opere perché è Dio che sceglie l’uomo.
- il ritorno alla purezza delle Sacre Scritture. Tutto ciò che noi sappiamo del rapporto tra uomo e Dio è scritto nella Bibbia; il clero e i concili non fanno che ostacolare la comprensione del testo sacro che invece deve essere vicino alla gente, a sua portata di mano.
- il sacerdozio universale. Il clero mondanizzato ha perso credibilità, è corrotto e lontano dai principi evangelici; non è perciò più necessario distinguere tra preti e laici.
Il ruolo di Lutero nella storia è però rilevante non solo dal punto di vista teologico, ma anche da quello sociale per via dei cambiamenti politici ed etici innestati dalla sua dottrina, delle rivolte al potere costituito che hanno immediatamente seguito la rivolta religiosa, del nuovo assetto politico che è andato delineandosi in Europa man mano che il Protestantesimo si faceva strada. Le 95 tesi esposte a Wittenberg nient’altro sono che una lettera spedita da Lutero stesso all’elettore di Sassonia per evitare che questi permettesse la propaganda delle indulgenze nel suo territorio. Eppure, all’insaputa del monaco, lo scritto – il cui titolo originale è Tesi per chiarire l’efficacia delle indulgenze – ha fin da subito innumerevoli consensi e viene copiato e stampato (in latino e in tedesco) per essere diffuso in tutta la Germania. La bolla Exurge, Domine (1520) con cui papa Leone X dichiara Lutero eretico e l’Editto di Worms (1521) con cui l’imperatore Carlo V mette l’eretico al bando da tutto l’impero, non hanno un grande effetto, forse addirittura aiutano la propaganda protestante e accendono ulteriormente gli animi, al punto che il movimento luterano diventa uno strumento di rivalsa sociale (come è avvenuto per la guerra dei cavalieri del 1522 e per la rivolta dei contadini del 1525) – anche se Lutero ha sempre fortemente condannato ogni forma di violenza.
Di fatto Lutero, abolendo il magistero ecclesiastico, pone ogni uomo nella condizione di essere autonomo protagonista del suo rapporto con Dio, indipendentemente dalla condizione sociale; ne consegue che ogni individuo deve essere in grado di saper leggere (e quindi educato a questa abilità) per poter capire e interpretare la volontà divina dai testi sacri. È questo uno dei motivi per i quali traduce in tedesco la Bibbia, rendendola comprensibile ad ogni uomo che abbia un minimo di istruzione. Lutero scrive anche un catechismo, sempre in lingua tedesca; desidera che tutti – uomini e donne – frequentino la scuola, desidera ancor più che gli amministratori e i politici favoriscano l’istruzione avvicinando anche coloro che non potevano permettersela per motivi economici; predica l’importanza dell’educazione istituzionale già impartita nelle scuole: in un futuro non lontano, la classe dirigente uscita da esse avrebbe consentito l’attuarsi di un potere civile moralmente integro e la diffusione della vera religione. Potremmo dire che, a seguito della Riforma, si ha un diffondersi di scuole laiche e popolari per l’istruzione primaria, come mai era accaduto in precedenza; ad esse, se ne aggiungono poi alcune di istruzione superiore nelle quali gli elementi della cultura umanistica e rinascimentale vengono subordinati a scopi religiosi.
Tra i prosecutori della Riforma, il più importante è probabilmente Giovanni Calvino (1509-1564) che estremizza il pensiero di Lutero nel tentativo di creare una chiesa patria degli eletti che è una sorta di teocrazia in cui i prescelti da Dio (tra cui c’è ovviamente lui stesso), laici o chierici che fossero, sono ugualmente ispirati dallo Spirito Santo che assicura verità e salvezza, giustifica le colpe e santifica le opere (così la fede diventa incitamento all’azione: i calvinisti, fin da allora, hanno mostrato notevole spirito di iniziativa politico-economica, essendo convinti che la ricchezza e il potere siano segno dell’elezione divina).
Il mondo cattolico, scosso dalla frattura nordeuropea del protestantesimo, non sta a guardare, ma dà il via alla sua riforma (chiamata Controriforma cattolica) la cui portata pedagogica non è da meno a quella luterana. Anzi, in parte si serve degli stessi strumenti della nuova Chiesa protestante: innanzitutto viene riorganizzata la preparazione dottrinale e morale del clero popolare (i parroci dei paesini e dei borghi) in modo che risultasse in grado di capire gli umori del popolo e guidarlo di nuovo verso i precetti del cattolicesimo; vengono poi istituiti nuovi ordini religiosi, fra i quali quello più importante sono i Gesuiti (o “Compagnia di Gesù”) di Sant’Ignazio di Loyola; infine, vengono creati speciali collegi e convitti in cui educare il futuro clero, istituti che presto si aprono anche ai laici diventando uno strumento formidabile di controllo sociale e che adottano modelli culturali di tipo umanistico. Proprio i Gesuiti più di tutti sono riusciti a conciliare le esigenze riformatrici della Chiesa alla cultura umanistica e rinascimentale: nelle loro scuole si insegnano il latino e il greco, si torna ai classici anche se in modo un po’ inaridito e prettamente formale, e si ripristina una severa disciplina, una programmazione controllata e puntigliosa della vita scolastica. L’itinerario di studi prevede un corso di livello inferiore dedicato per cinque anni alla grammatica e alla retorica, e un corso di livello superiore in cui si danno lezioni di logica, metafisica, etica, matematica, scienze naturali. La disciplina dei Gesuiti risulta di grande efficacia, grazie al metodo della sorveglianza continua su ogni momento della giornata.
La Controriforma poi favorisce l’apertura di scuole gratuite per l’istruzione elementare, scuole atte a fornire le basi della lingua e del calcolo e crea i primi oratori intesi come luoghi di incontro e di indottrinamento per i bambini più poveri (spicca in tal senso l’opera di San Filippo Neri). La famiglie ricche sono sempre più favorevoli a mandare i loro figli nei collegi perché ricevano un’educazione e un’istruzione adeguate al loro rango – segno questo di una maggiore attenzione prestata all’infanzia e alla fanciullezza sviluppatesi in questi anni (è questa l’epoca in cui la famiglia inizia lentamente la propria evoluzione verso una struttura di tipo nucleare): i genitori desiderano che i loro figli emergano socialmente e perciò cercano maestri e precettori che insegnino loro a pagamento, allo scopo di favorire lo sviluppo delle capacità e delle attitudini specifiche di ogni giovane individuo.
È evidente che, grazie al rinnovamento scaturito dalle trame religiose riformiste – sia in senso luterano che in senso cattolico – e sulla spinta culturale offerta dal pensiero umanista, si sta gradatamente passando da uno stadio di educazione diffusa ad uno di educazione intenzionale.
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And frankly talking that’s great need to supply a
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Hence, 4 distinct subsets of the aggregate betting population are outlined.
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assistance of bookies in neighborhood (A bookie is the one that
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likelihood of constructing the proper wager, one might evaluate this to the anticipated likelihood
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risk-aware and risk-averse however engaged nonetheless in betting for an opportunity of winning a excessive payoff.
We additionally used a paired samples t-test to check whether
gamblers had a higher number of appropriate outcomes than likelihood
when forecasting the outcomes of the games. The results recommend that the adverse selection downside faced
by bookmakers, within the context of bettors who may possess superior
information, is capable of explaining a minimum of a number of the noticed bias.
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I believe the Dodgers are going to win this game.
It’s the Dodgers and it isn’t very close.
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It was Nevada’s most profitable sports betting month ever.
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With great betting tips, you will get a great technique in place.
But before answering these two questions, you’ve to contemplate the place to place your wagers.
It is best to have a solid plan of motion in place. In any
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Beginners often spend some time browsing the net as a result of they want to determine how persons are managing to make a
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Sports activities betting is a enjoyable approach to make some
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Now I am going to do my breakfast, afterward having my
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To begin with, sports activities betting in addition to online sports activities
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For example, let’s say you make a £25 deposit
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How can I make a Deposit or a Withdrawal from my Account?
Once the consultant accesses your account, they will inform you
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We will have nothing left to open. If you run into any
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A Customer service Representative will assist you in making deposits and withdrawals in your account.
This consultant will even have access to stay odds and results.
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On the January 24, 2020 Common Assembly of the Arizona Racing
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PLUS. There Are There is a quantity Odds you still may supply.
Positive, the Cats did not hold Big East groups less than 60 points per recreation this
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A few of the sports you may wager on are horse racing, dog racing, skilled hockey, skilled baseball, and professional and school soccer and basketball.
A bettor may wager on a shedding group and still win provided that the staff loses by a particular variety of points.
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Listed below are soccer betting suggestions that we have listed so you
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If you’re taken with unfold betting here is a listing of
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The best thing you can do before taking part in this type of betting is to research and
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Value means getting higher odds on the result of the
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The aims that these sportsbooks try to achieve into the
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Nonetheless much isn’t given on this type first resolve whether the
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Decide 5 and pick 6 money the precise instruments to make your betting comfortable.
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This is an example of the market ‘overcorrecting’
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Listed here are soccer betting tips that we have listed so you can do both, win and have fun. This circumvents potential econometric problems, and allows us to
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